Thickeners sold in Brazil: analysis of the composition and suitability for children under the age of 3 / Espessantes comercializados no Brasil: análise da composição e da adequação para crianças menores de 3 anos

Introduction: Thickeners are used in the treatment of swallowing disorders, named dysphagia. In Brazil there is no specific product for the pediatric population who under the age of 3 years. Objective: To analyze the different types of thickeners available in Brazil, considering their chemical composition and their use in pediatrics. Methods: Quantitative study, with descriptive approach based on the data collection. The brands of existing thickeners were analyzed in Brazil and their composition in relation to the Codex Alimentarius and nutritional recommendations for children from 0 to 3 years. Results: Eight brands were studied, three of which proved to be inappropriate for pediatric use because they have gum in their formulation. Other thickeners brands did not present inadequacies for use in the age group from 0 to 3 years old regarding to the type of carbohydrate, sodium content and total caloric value. Conclusion: In Brazil, 5 thickeners brands present in their composition levels of sodium and profile of carbohydrate adequate for children from 0 to 3 years, even when they are associated with infant formulas.(AU)

Introdução: Os espessantes são utilizados no tratamento dos distúrbios de deglutição, denominados disfagia, porém, no Brasil, não há produto específico para a população pediátrica menor de 3 anos. Objetivo: Analisar os diferentes tipos de espessantes disponíveis no Brasil, considerando sua composição química e sua utilização em pediatria. Método: Estudo quantitativo, do tipo descritivo com base no levantamento de dados. Foram analisadas as marcas de espessantes existentes no Brasil quanto a sua composição em relação ao Códex Alimentarius e recomendações nutricionais para crianças de 0 a 3 anos. Resultados: Foram estudadas oito marcas, das quais três mostraram-se inadequadas para utilização pediátrica, por possuírem goma em sua formulação. As demais marcas de espessantes não apresentaram inadequações para uso na faixa etária de 0 a 3 anos de idade no que se refere ao tipo de carboidrato, teor de sódio e valor calórico total. Conclusão: No Brasil, 5 marcas de espessantes apresentam em sua composição teores de sódio e perfil de carboidratos adequados para crianças de 0 a 3 anos, mesmo quando associadas a fórmulas infantis.(AU)

Determinação do teor de proteínas e carboidratos totais em suplementos tipo Whey Protein / Determination of proteins and total carbohydrates in Whey Protein supplements

O consumo de whey protein, no Brasil e no mundo, aumentou nos últimos anos em decorrência da preocupação com a saúde e bem-estar físico. Atualmente, estão disponíveis no comércio uma série de marcas e diferentes tipos de whey protein. Os estudos têm demonstrado irregularidades na composição química de amostras analisadas, e em especial, nos teores de proteínas e carboidratos totais, em comparação com os citados nos respectivos rótulos. Neste trabalho, foram avaliadas 15 amostras de whey protein concentrado quanto aos teores de carboidratos totais por meio de Lane Eynon e de nitrogênio total e proteínas por Kjeldahl. As metodologias utilizadas são oficiais e os métodos analíticos foram previamente validados. Os resultados obtidos foram comparados com os valores expressos nos rótulos dos produtos. Para o teor de carboidratos totais, das 15 amostras avaliadas, apenas quatro atenderam ao conteúdo indicado no rótulo. Quanto ao teor proteico, duas amostras não atenderam aos valores expressos no rótulo, considerando-se o limite de tolerância de ± 20 %, de acordo com a Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária (ANVISA). Sugere-se a criação de normas específicas para esse tipo de produto, para estabelecer uma melhor fiscalização e garantia da qualidade, que beneficiarão os seus consumidores.

In the recent years, the consumption of whey protein has increased in Brazil and in the world, due to the health concerns and the physical well-being. Currently, diverse brands and types of whey protein are commercially available. Several studies have shown irregularities in the chemical composition of analyzed samples, mainly in protein and total carbohydrate contents, when compared with those indicated in the labels. This study evaluated 15 samples of concentrated whey protein purchased in the Rio de Janeiro city. The total carbohydrate contents were determined by Lane Eynon, and the total nitrogen and protein by means of Kjeldahl. The used methodologies are official; and the analytical methods were previously validated. The results were compared with the values expressed in the respective products labels. For the total carbohydrate contents, of 15 evaluated samples only four complied with the labels. For protein contents, two samples did not meet the amounts stated on the label, considering the tolerance limit of ± 20 %, according to the ANVISA (Brazilian Agency for Health Surveillance). It is suggested to institute the specific standards for this type of product, for establishing better supervision and quality assurance, which will be profitable to the consumers.

Guarda responsável de animais de estimação na área urbana do município de Pelotas, RS, Brasil / Responsible pet animal guardianship in the urban area of the municipality of Pelotas in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

O presente estudo teve por objetivo estimar a presença de cães e gatos em domicílios da zona urbana do município e avaliar a guarda responsável e seus fatores associados. Foi realizado um estudo transversal, de base populacional com processo de amostragem em múltiplos estágios e com os setores censitários do censo demográfico do ano de 2010, realizado pelo IBGE, utilizados como conglomerados. A unidade em estudo foi o domicílio. O desfecho foi a guarda responsável, definida por um escore que levou em consideração as seguintes variáveis: esterilização, vacinação antirrábica, consulta médica veterinária, controle de endoparasitas, acesso dos animais às áreas públicas e o recolhimento das fezes nestes locais e controle de ectoparasitas. Entre os 1.558 domicílios investigados, 58,9% possuíam animais de estimação (cão e/ou gato). O estudo revela que o escore de posse responsável aumenta com a escolaridade do chefe da família e é maior entre os moradores de apartamento. A maioria dos domicílios investigados atendeu apenas a metade dos critérios. Os resultados deste estudo apontam para a necessidade de políticas públicas que orientem a população sobre a guarda responsável e que ofertem serviços de imunizações e esterilização para os animais.

The study sought to estimate the presence of cats and dogs in households in the urban area of the city and assess responsible guardianship and associated factors. A population-based, cross-sectional study was conducted using the multi-stage sampling process and the census sectors of the demographic census of the year 2010 carried out by IBGE were used as conglomerates. The unit under study was the household. The outcome was responsible guardianship, defined by a score that took into account the following variables: sterilization, anti-rabies vaccination, veterinary medical consultation, control of endoparasites, access of animals to public areas, control of ectoparasites and the collection of feces of animals in public areas. Of the 1,558 households investigated, 58.9% had pets (cat or dog). The study reveals that the score of responsible guardianship increases with the education level of the head of the household and is highest among apartment dwellers. The majority of the households investigated met only half of the criteria. The results of this study point to the need for public policies that instruct the population on responsible guardianship, and that offer immunizations and sterilization services for animals.

Caracterización química y cuantificación de fructooligosacáridos, compuestos fenólicos y actividad antirradical de tubérculos y raíces andinos cultivados en el noroeste de Argentina / Chemical characterization and quantification of fructooligosaccharides, phenolic compounds and antiradical activity of Andean roots and tubers grown in Northwest of Argentina

Existe un creciente interés por consumir alimentos que además de aportar los componentes básicos para una buena nutrición provean otros compuestos benéficos para la salud. El objetivo del trabajo fue determinar la composición química de alimentos autóctonos de la región andina y cuantificar algunos componentes funcionales. Se determinó composición centesimal, contenido de vitamina C y compuestos fenólicos totales, actividad antirradical (DPPH) en cáscara y pulpa, fibra dietaria soluble e insoluble, fructooligosacáridos (FOS), almidón total y resistente (en tubérculos y raíces crudos, hervidos y hervidos y almacenados) de 6 variedades de Ocas (Oxalis tuberosa), 4 clones de Mandiocas (Manihot esculenta Crantz) y Yacón (Smallanthus sonchifolius). Los resultados mostraron mayor cantidad de compuestos bioactivos y actividad antirradical en la cáscara de ocas. En todos los casos el contenido de fibra insoluble fue mayor que la soluble. Las mandiocas tuvieron mayor contenido de almidón total que las raíces y tubérculos andinos. El proceso de ebullición disminuyó el contenido de almidón resistente en ocas y mandiocas pero cuando éstas se almacenaron por 48h a 5°C, el contenido de almidón resistente aumentó nuevamente. El contenido de FOS en ocas fue similar para todas las variedades (Aproximadamente 7%). El principal componente de los carbohidratos del yacón fueron los FOS (8,89%). Se puede concluir que las raíces y tubérculos estudiados, además de aportar nutrientes, contienen compuestos funcionales que les confieren un valor adicional como alimentos útiles para la prevención de algunas enfermedades no trasmisibles.

There is great interest in consuming foods that can provide the nutrients for a good nutrition and other health beneficial compounds. The aim of this work was to determine the chemical composition of native foods of the Andean region and to quantify some functional components. Proximal composition, vitamin C, total phenolic compounds, antiradical activity (DPPH) in peel and pulp, dietary fiber soluble and insoluble, fructooligosaccharides (FOS), total and resistant starch (in tubers and raw roots, boiled and boiled and stored) of 6 varieties of Oca (Oxalis tuberosa), 4 clones of manioc (Manihot esculenta Crantz) and yacon (Smallanthus sonchifolius were determined. The results showed greater amount of bioactive compounds and antiradical activity in the skin of these products. The highest content was found in the oca peel. In all cases, the content of insoluble fiber was greater than the soluble. The manioc had higher total starch than Andean roots and tubers. The boiling process decreased the resistant starch content of ocas and maniocs, but when these are stored for 48 h at 5 ° C, the resistant starch content increased. The FOS content of the ocas was similar for all varieties (7%). The main component of yacon carbohydrates were FOS (8,89%). The maniocs did not contain FOS. It can be concluded that the roots and tubers studied, in addition to provide nutrients, contain functional compounds that confer additional helpful value for preventing no communicable diseases.

La caries dental y los factores relacionados en una población de adultos de la ciudad de la rioja, Argentina / The dental caries and related factors in adult population of the city of rioja, Argentina

La caries dental es un proceso patológico post-eruptivo, localizado, externo, involucra un reblandecimiento de los tejidos duros del diente procediendo a la formación de una cavidad1. Se determinó la presencia de caries dental, su relación con factores patológicos y preventivos en adultos de La Rioja, Argentina. A partir de 183 adultos de 25 a 35 años de edad se estudiaron los dientes con caries, obturaciones, perdidos e índice CPOD y se registraron en una ficha dental. Por cada adulto se obtuvo una historia clínica. El 77% de los adultos presentó un promedio de 3,73±4,28 caries, 4,75±4,61 obturaciones, 1,91±2,92 perdidos e índice CPOD 10,39±5,90. El CPOD para el género femenino fue mayor que para el masculino (p=0,042). La caries se relacionó con bajo nivel de educación (p=0,0001), ingreso económico (p=0,0086), cepillado dental diario (p=0,0340), cepillado nocturno (p=0,0018), con consulta prevalente por dolor (p<0,0001), falta de visita bucal anual (p=0,0003) y de obra social (p=0,0064). La caries dental es una enfermedad presente en la población adulta se asocia con bajo nivel de educación, económico y preventivo dental. Necesita del abordaje económico cultural integrado de la sociedad para mejorar la salud bucal del adulto y asegurar su calidad de vida en su senectud.

The dental caries is defined a post eruptive pathological process of external origin located tooth involves softening of the hard tissues of the tooth proceeding consequently to the formation of a tooth cavity1. The presence of dental caries was determined, its relationship with pathological and preventive factors in adults of La Rioja, Argentina. From 183 adults from 25-35 years of age, were studied decayed, fillings, missing teeth and index DMFT and recorded on a dental chart. For each adult, a clinic history was obtained. The 77% of adults had a mean of 3,73 ±4,28 caries, 4,75 ±4,61 filling, 1,91 ±2,92 missing and DMFT 10,39 ±5,90. The DMFT was higher for the female gender than for males (p=0,042). Caries was associated with low level of education (p=0,0001), low income (p=0,0086) lack tooth daily brushing (p<0,0340), lack of night brushing (p=0,018), check only for pain (p< 0,0001), lack of annual dental visit (p=0,0003) and absence of coverage social (p=0,0064). Dental caries is a disease present in the population of adults, is associated with low level education, economic and lack of prevention dental. Requires a socio cultural economic work of society to improve the oral health of adults and ensure their senescence.

The Efficacy and Tolerability of Sugared Polyethylene Glycol for Colonoscopy / 대한소화기학회지

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Although polyethylene glycol (PEG) solution is commonly used for colonoscopic bowel preparation because of its safety and effectiveness, its salty taste decreases patient's compliance. The aim of this study was to compare the sugared PEG solution with the standard PEG solution in regard to the quality of bowel preparation and patient's compliance. METHODS: From January through June in 2012, 100 patients who underwent colonoscopy in Gangneung Asan Hospital were prospectively enrolled. They were randomly assigned to receive either standard PEG solution or sugared PEG solution. The quality of bowel preparation was assessed by a doctor's questionnaire and the patient's compliance was assessed by a patient's questionnaire. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in the quality of bowel preparation (4.2+/-2.0 vs. 4.1+/-1.5, p=0.783), and endoscopist's satisfaction score (8.2+/-1.8 vs. 8.5+/-1.3, p=0.253) between two groups. However, The degree of disgust was lower in the sugared PEG group than the standard PEG group (6.4+/-2.3 vs. 3.9+/-2.9, p=0.000). The willingness to repeat same regimen was higher in the sugared PEG group than the standard PEG group (2.0+/-0.6 vs. 2.3+/-0.7, p=0.004). There was no difference in side effects between two groups. CONCLUSIONS: The sugared PEG solution as a bowel preparation method revealed a higher patient's compliance and was effective as the standard PEG solution. When the patient dislike the taste and saltness of the standard PEG solution, the sugared PEG solution will be good alternative method.

Effect of sugar factory effluent on some physico-chemical properties of soils--a case study.

The effect of irrigation by sugar factory effluent (spentwash) and the well water from adjoining area has been studied in Wardha district, Maharashtra. The effluent had high TDS (422-608 mgL(-1)), COD (1152-17680 mgL(-1)) and BOD(380-650 mgL(-1)) than well water (TDS 240 mgL(-1), COD 3.8 mgL(-1) and BOD 1.2 mgL(-1)). There found some nutrients, viz. N, P, K, Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn in surface layer of soil in different seasons. Heavy metals (Cd, Co, Cr, Ni, Pb) were found to be within the permissible limits.

Improved method for estimation of inorganic phosphate: implications for its application in enzyme assays.

The conventional method of Fiske and Subba Row for the estimation of inorganic phosphate (Pi) is although rapid, but suffers from the disadvantage that the color is unstable and hence the optical density (OD) measurements have to be carried out within a short time span of 8-12 min. This poses a restriction on the number of samples, which can be handled in a batch. Although, modified procedures involving use of alternate reducing agents/or increasing the concentration of H2SO4 in conventional method have been subsequently developed, but the problem of color stability could not be solved. In addition, the use of higher concentrations H2SO4 has rendered the methods unsuitable in enzyme assays, especially if the acid labile phosphate containing substrates have been used. In the present study, attempts have been made to suitably modify the method to improve the stability of the color and sensitivity and also for its applicability in enzyme assays, especially when acid labile phosphate containing substrates such as ATP is used. We used the higher concentrations (0.625, 0.8 and 1.0 N) of H2SO4 rather than 0.5 N used in the conventional assay procedures. Under these conditions, the reagent blanks do not develop color for up to 24 h, whereas the intensity of the molybdenum blue color in the standard and/or experimental tubes increased with time reaching optimum value at 24 h. Simultaneously, the absorption maximum shifts from 660 nm to 820 nm. The highest concentration of H2SO4 (1.0 N) is found to be the most effective in the process of color development. The sensitivity of the method is from 1.7 to 2.1 times higher, as compared to the conventional Fiske and Subba Row method for the measurements carried out at the end of 15 min at 820 nm and with the highest concentration of H2SO4 (1.0 N); the sensitivity increased 4.8-fold at the end of 24 h. Presence of glucose and sucrose (1-10 mM), NaCl and KCI (5-100 mM), MgCl2 (1-10 mM) and BSA (10 to 500 microg per assay tube) do not interfere either with color development or with OD measurements. The extent of ATP hydrolysis is 1.6 to 3.4% for up to 1 hi, depending upon the concentration of H2SO4 used. Only negligible hydrolysis of G6P is observed under these conditions. These results suggest that the presently modified method is suitable for Pi analysis in the enzyme assays, in the presence of labile phosphate containing substrates.

La combinación de los azúcares con las biomoléculas: desde la cocina al organismo / The combination of sugars with biomolecules: from the kitchen to the organism

A pesar de nuestra profesión, cuando cocinamos no reflexionamos demasiado acerca de lo complejas que resultan las operaciones culinarias desde el punto de vista químico. Nuestra condición humana requiere alimentarnos con productos que además de nutrirnos, sorprendan nuestros sentidos y nos satisfagan espiritualmente. Para introducirnos en la complejidad de los alimentos es necesario comprender la diferencia entre gusto y sabor y relacionarlos con los alimentos resultantes de la combinación de diversas biomoléculas. Debemos a ciertas reacciones químicas la generación de una enorme variedad de compuestos aromáticos, que combinados en forma adecuada, producen alimentos de los cuales disfrutamos diariamente. Mucho de este tema gira alrededor de Louis Camille Maillard, un médico que a principios del siglo XX estudió la combinación de los azúcares con las proteínas. Su principal aporte fue relacionar los procesos culinarios con los que ocurren en el organismo. Las reacciones de Maillard -la llamada glucosilación no enzimática- modifican profundamente las biomoléculas, como se ha comprobado en muchos trabajos científicos. En el organismo las reacciones de Maillard son similares a las que ocurren en la cocina, pero transcurren más lentamente y se relacionan con la enfermedad y el envejecimiento.

In spite of our profession, when we cook we do not think too much about the complex processes that take place in culinary operations from the chemical point of view. Our human nature makes us desire not only a meal that nourishes us, but also surprises our senses and satisfies us spiritually. In order to introduce ourselves in the complexity of food, it is necessary to understand the difference between taste and flavor, and to relate them to food as an outcome of a diverse combination of biomolecules. We owe to certain chemical reactions the generation of an enormous variety of aromatic compounds that combined in a suitable way, produce the meals which we enjoy daily. Most of this subject revolves around Louis Camille Maillard, a French physician who, at the beginning of XX century, studied the combination of sugars with proteins. His main contribution was that he related culinary processes to those which take place in our body. It has been broadly verified scientifically that the Maillard reaction -also known as nonenzymatic glycosylation- modifies biomolecules deeply. In the organism, Maillard reactions are similar to those which happen in the kitchen but they occur more slowly and are associated with disease and aging.

Biochemical studies of embryogenic and non-embryogenic callus of Cardiospermum halicacabum L.

Some physiological and biochemical changes were measured between embryogenic and non-embryogenic callus obtained from Cardiospermum halicacabum. Combination of auxin with cytokinin was more favourable for high amount of callus formation. 2,4-D played a key role in triggering somatic embryo formation. Embryogenic callus had more total carbohydrate and starch contents, total free amino acids, nucleic acids, phenols and ascorbic acid. Non-embryogenic callus exhibited high chlorophyll content, total soluble sugar, protein, ammonia and enzymes like peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase. Thus, the present study indicated that the process of somatic embryogenesis was characterized by some biochemical and physiological changes induced by plant growth regulators.

Transglutaminases, thioredoxins and protein disulphide isomerase: diverse enzymes with a common goal of cross-linking proteins in lower organisms.

Prokaryotes and various eukaryotes have remarkable ability to survive under adverse physiologic conditions and protect themselves from environmental stresses. An important mechanism by which they accomplish this is by synthesizing rigid and biochemically inert structures around them. In general, these structures are highly stable and resistant to mechanical and chemical insults. Biochemically, they are composed of complex carbohydrates, such as chitin and heavily crosslinked scaffold of proteins to form complex structures, such as sheath, cuticle, and epicuticle. Transglutaminases (TGases) are a family of enzymes that share catalytic function with thioredoxin and protein disulphide isomerases (PDI) and catalyze protein crosslink reaction by establishing epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)lysine isopeptide bonds. The isopeptide bonds thus formed are of great physiologic significance because once formed, they cannot be hydorlysed by any known enzymes of the eukaryote system and exhibit high resistance to reducing agents, detergents, and chaotropic agents. Therefore, it is likely that protective structures viz., sheath, cuticle, epicuticle, and viral core proteins synthesized by microorganisms involve active participation of TGases. In this review, we briefly describe the current knowledge of non-mammalian TGases and their possible role in growth, development, and survival of small organisms. Special reference is made to filarial nematode and bacterial TGases since they are the most well-characterized and studied enzymes among non-mammalian TGases.

Molecular modelling of MHC class I carbohydrates.

In this article we present the results of molecular modelling of four complex carbohydrates which have been found in the MHC class I proteins. Though these proteins show diversity in their sequences, the glycosylation sites are highly conserved indicating a possible structural/functional role of the glycan chain. Similar glycan chains have been found linked with other proteins of completely different function, such as IgG, and erythropoeitin. Thus, the molecular modelling of these carbohydrates will not only provide structural/dynamic information of these complex molecules but will also provide conformational information which can be utilised to build the glycoprotein models. The results presented here indicate that although several linkages show less conformational flexibility, terminal linkages can be quite flexible.

Nuevas perspectivas acerca de la calidad nutricional de los hidratos de carbono complejos disponibles / New views on the nutritional quality of available complex carbohydrates

Los hidratos de carbono complejos han adquirido inportancia en la prevención de enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles. El presente artículo describe las características químicas y fisiológicas de los hidratos de carbono complejos y su interacción con otros alimentos. También se discute el efecto de los hidratos de carbono sobre la saciedad y la capacidad de aprendizaje

Electrochemical behaviour of some arylidene derivatives of carbohydrazide at mercury electrode in aqueous ethanolic buffer solutions

The electrochemical behavior of some arylidene derivatives of carbohydrazides was investigated by dc-polarography, de-polarography, cyclic voltammetry, and controlled potential coulometry techniques, at a mercury electrode in 50% ethanolic Britton-Robinson buffer solutions of pH 2-10. In acidic media [pH <4], the reduction occurs along a single irreversible 8-electron wave corresponding to the cleavage of the 2 N-N bonds and saturation of the 2 C=N centers, while at 6 /7] the total limiting current decreases on increasing the pH, this decrease is accompanied with the formation of a polarographic minimum till the wave disappears completely at pH's >10. The kinetic parameters, nature of the waves, the effect of pH on the limiting current and half-wave potentials as well as the reduction mechanism are discussed

Study of Different carbohydrates in aerva lanata juss exschult and a javanica burm fil growing in Egypt and evaluation of hypoglycaemic effect of their polysaccharides

Qualitative and quantitative analysis of individual carbohydrates in the aerial parts of A. lanata Juss ex Schult and A. javanica Burm. Fil. growing in Egypt was carried out for the first time, applying PC, GLC and gel filtration. In both species, free arabinose, rhamnose, xylose, galactose, glucose, mannose and mannitol were revealed, but in variable amounts. Mannitol [4.2% in A. lanata and 2.2% in A. javanica] was isolated. Polysaccharides proved of pectic nature [4.8% in A. lanata and 3.25% in A. javanica] and afforded four fractions in A. lanata and three fractions in A. javanica on gel filtration on Sephadex G-100. Acid hydrolysis of individual fractions followed by PC and GLC revealed qualitative and quantitative variation of component sugars and uronic acids. A. lanata polysaccharide exhibited more remarkable hypoglycemic activity than that of A. javanica, which may be attributed to the difference in complexity of their structures. Total Carbohydrates as well as soluble sugars varied also in both species

Chemical and technological studies on sugar beet roots

This work was carried out to overcome the chemical deterioration and to extend the shelf-life of sugar beet roots after reaping and before processing. Roots were sliced and dried after treating with sodium hydroxide, ascorbic acid, and sulfur dioxide [solution and gas]. The treatment by sulfur dioxide fumes had the best effect on the slices of beet roots. The color and chemical changes were very low compared to the fresh roots. Polyphenol oxidase and invertase of sugar beet roots were extracted and their properties were studied. Sulfur dioxide was used with different concentrations as an inhibitor for chemical and enzymatic changes. The concentration of 400 ppm SO2 liberated from a sodium metabisulfite solution as well as the SO2 fumes produced by burning sulfur in a sealed cabinet were the best treatments to sugar beet slices for the prevention of sucrose hydrolysis during extraction. Additionally, no discoloration was observed in the beet extract

Investigation of the free sugars and mucilage of euphorbia pseudocasts A. Berger and euphorbia pubica N.E.BR.

Free sugars of the aerial parts of Euphorbia pseudocactus and Euphorbia nubica were isolated. Identification was carried out by paper chromatography [PC] and gas liquid chromatography [GLC] which revealed the presence of arabinose, rhamnose, xylose, fructose, galactose, glucose and glucuronic acid in a ratio of [16: 20: 12: 4: 16: 3: 1] in E. pseudocactus, as well as arabinose, rhamnose, xylose, fructose, galactose, glucose, galacturonic acid and glucuronic acid were detected in a ratio of [2: 1: 14: 5: 2: 18: 2: 1] in E. nubica. Mucilage of each plant was separately extracted by cold and hot methods and weighed. PC and GLC analysis of the mucilage hydrolyzates revealed the presence of arabinose, rhamnose, xylose, galactose, glucose, and galacturonic acid in different ratios in the four mucilage hydrolyzates of the two plants

Carbohydrate epitopes: structure and presentation and the reactivity of biological ligands: recognition of alpha-D-Galp NAc and alpha-D-Galp conformational structures

Apart from glycolipids and glycoproteins that express A and B blood group antigens which contain terminal nonreducing units of alpha-D-Galp NAc and alpha-D-Galp respectively, there are several other glycoconjugates in nature that contain these units linked to unfucosylated saccharides or protein. They represent normal products of the action of specific glycosyl-transferases in primate and nonprimate mammalian cells, protozoa and a few other microorganisms, end-units of carbohydrate components that have not benn further processed by additional glycosylation, or neo-antigens resulting from deregulation of certain transferases as in tumor cells. Biological ligands recognizing these structures include mono and polyclonal antibodies, bacterial fimbriae and laminin. Binding depends on the linkages and sequence of the carbohydrate chain, but also on the epitope conformation as influenced by adjacent substitution, angling determined by the glycoconjugate-substrate interaction, steric hindrance and other factors. These aspects are discussed in this minireview.